Cytokines are a class of small-molecule proteins that are secreted by cells. They include interleukins, interferons, tumour necrosis factors, growth factors and chemokines. They bind to corresponding receptors on effector cells, thereby initiating signal transduction. Cytokines are well-established to play a key role in immune responses such as infection, inflammation, haematopoiesis,...
Microneedles (MNs) are micrometre-scale needles that range in height from 25 to 2,000 micrometres. They are manufactured from a variety of materials and are available in a range of shapes. Microneedle technology is a recent advancement in biomedical science. MN-based drug delivery technology can overcome many of the limitations currently faced in drug delivery, including low absorption rates,...
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